Why is Second Language Acquisition Fundamentally Different from First Language Acquisition?

This paper explores issues of first and second language learning in particular the fundamental differences between first language (L1) and second language (L2) acquisition. The first part of the chapter provides an overview of the general issues related to the L1 and L2 acquisition and language teaching beliefs. Afterward, the paper critically reviews the possible types of comparison embroiled in contrasting L1 and L2 acquisition. In the next section, it examines a number of studies delineating the fundamental differences between L1 and L2 acquisition subsequently followed by conclusion.

A.Overview on L1 and L2 Acquisition

It has been widely accepted that the second language acquisition (SLA) might refer to language learning in which the target language being learned is used as the major communication aid in the community where the language learning takes place. The term acquisition, however, might be differently interpreted that often leads to difficulty in making comparison of one SLA study with others. Acquisition might be broadly regarded as the process of acquiring a language through exposure which mostly happens subconsciously (Krashen, 1981 as cited in Ellis, 1994). Nevertheless, the problem emerges as researchers disagree with the language products or samples used as evidence of acquisition. SLA is a multifaceted process and, therefore, it is imperative to consider the different settings (whether naturalistic or instructional), focus of the study (whether examining linguistic or communicative performances) and the available language samples when carrying the investigation. A number of issues addressed in SLA research generally focuses on questions of what the student acquire in their language learning, how they acquire it, what learning approaches that a different individual uses and what contributions the instruction might serve in students’ language learning (Ellis, 1994).

In addressing these issues, researchers are working by largely considering the various natures and concepts which usually appear and are involved in SLA process that include settings or contexts, language, learners and learning process (Ellis, 1994). SLA might take place in both naturalistic and instructional context. Even though there is no specific evidence of how settings can influence SLA, but contexts significantly contribute to the amount and types of language exposure, available time and feedback received during the language learning (Lightbown and Spada, 1999). Dealing with the language learned in SLA, Scrivener (2002) categorized it into two; the language systems (phonology, lexis, grammar and language functions) and the language skills (four macro skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing). As in language, learner also has been an indispensable element in SLA. The learners’ individual characteristics such as motivation, personality and age are also important in underpinning both research and language learning. The learning process, on one side, deals with the learners’ mental process as well as learners’ strategies used in acquiring language systems and skills of the target language learned (Ellis, 1994).

In first language acquisition, meanwhile, researchers are still in controversy in delineating how children acquire their first language (Brown, 1994). In spite of their shortcomings, the existing approaches and theories of first language acquisition have given invaluable insights to a clearer picture of L1 acquisition. Behaviourist approach, firstly introduced by Skinner (1957), has considered language as an indispensable part of human behaviour (Ellis, 1994). Accordingly, L1 acquisition is viewed more effective as it is delivered through repetition, imitation or reinforcement. The theory speculates that external stimuli or environment determines the learning process since it controls the children’s verbal behaviour (language) important for language acquisition. However, the nativists, Chomsky and Lenneberg (as cited in Ellis, 1994) criticised and contended that L1 acquisition is largely determined by the innate properties or ability represented in the little black box renowned as a language acquisition device (LAD). Consequently, in L1 acquisition children are very likely to be creative beings who proceed and produce utterances that might never been spoken by or heard from others. However, Bloom (1971), representing the functional theory, has challenged the nativism as it mainly emphasizes on the language itself and does not involve perception, meaning and emotion that together account for the function of language. According to this theory, L1 acquisition requires more than superficial word order as suggested by nativists, instead it needs elaboration of both cognitive, affective domain including children’s linguistic experiences.

The fast development of research in first language acquisition around 60s and 70s has inevitably brought new spirit for educators especially those engage in language teaching and learning. The implication of L1 acquisition theories as outlined above is widespread worldwide that noticeably impacts on language teaching and learning practices especially L2 learning. Although, it has been intensively criticized by some linguists such as Vroman (1994) and Brown (2000), the fact that acquiring L1 is always easy and successful has inspired L2 teachers to learn and even adopt L1 learning principles in their pedagogical practices. Today it may be very common and accepted that the studies of L1 acquisition has been a best model for second language learning as well.

Stern (1970, as cited in Brown, 2000) outlined some common beliefs that for a long time have been cropped up to mistakenly advocate the L2 teaching procedures on the basis of first language acquisition principles:

1. In language teaching, we must practice and practice, again and again. Just watch a small child learning his mother tongue. He repeats things over and over again. During the language-learning stage he practices all the time. This is what we must also do when we learn a foreign language.
2. Language learning is mainly a matter of imitation. You must be a mimic. Just like a small child. He imitates everything.
3. First, we practice the separate sounds, then words, the sentences. That is the natural order and is therefore right for learning a foreign language.
4. Watch a small child's speech development. First he listens, and then he speaks. Understanding always precedes speaking. Therefore, this must be the right order of presenting the skills in a foreign language.
5. A small child listens and speaks and no one would dream of making him read or write. Reading and writing are advanced stages of language development. The natural order for first and second language learning is listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
6. 6.You did not have to translate when you were small. If you were able to learn your own language without translation, you should be able to learn a foreign language in the same way.
7. A small child simply uses language. He does not learn a formal grammar. You don't tell him about verbs and nouns. Yet he learns language perfectly. It is equally unnecessary to use grammatical conceptualization in teaching a foreign language (p. 50).

If the above analogies are intensely considered, it is clear that they are very much influenced by the behavioristic theory of language where L1 acquisition process is viewed as consisting of memorising practices, habit formation, reinforcement, conditioning and stimulus and response that are different from those actually occurring in L2 learning process. In regard to this issue, Vroman (1994) has strongly alerted that research has indicated that there have been principal differences between L1 and L2 acquisition theories and approaches and, therefore, the current practices of L2 learning should be reconsidered for better students’ learning outcomes.

B.Types of Comparison in L1 and L2 Acquisition

For years, a number of studies on language learning have considered and used contrastive or comparative approach between L1 and L2 as trustworthy method of solving any language teaching and learning problems as well as generating conclusion. It is very often, however, that they are not based upon clear and comprehensive approach of comparison. Brown (2000) has alerted that in SLA research inappropriate comparison among contributing factors or elements might lead to unreliable results, illogical analogies and false conclusion.

In comparing L1 and L2 acquisition, Brown (2000) further explained that there are two different factors or participants involved, they are child (in L1) and adult (in L2). From the outset, it seems illogical to compare the L1 acquisition of child with the L2 acquisition of an adult. But, It is will be more logical to compare L1 and L2 learning in children or to compare L2 learning in children and adults as indicated in the following figure.

(Figure cannot be displayed)

The above matrix of possible comparison represents four possible categories to compare which are defined by age (in vertical) and type of acquisition (in horizontal) line. It is also important to note that the vertical dash line between the child and adult is hazy in order to allow for varying definitions of adulthood.

Area A1 represents an abnormal situation of L1 language development for adult. There have been few recorded cases of an adult acquiring a first language. Abnormality and language disability that hinder L1 acquisition might be fallen into this category. Since this category can be easily recognised and rarely used, it can be eliminated from discussion. Accordingly, there have been three possible types of comparison (Brown, 2000) as follow:

1. L1 and L2 acquisition in children (C1-C2), holding age constant.
2. L2 acquisition in children and adults (C2-A2), holding second language constant.
3. L1 acquisition in children and L2 acquisition in adults (C1-A2).

In the first type of comparison where the age is constant, one seems manipulating the language variable (L1 and L2). However, Brown (2000) further added that it is important to remember that both a 3 years old and a 9 years old display vast cognitive, affective and physical differences, and that comparisons of all three types must be treated with caution when varying ages of children are being considered. In the second type of comparison where the L2 is constant, it appears that one is manipulating the differences between children and adults. This type of comparison, for obvious reasons, is the most illogical and rewarding in producing analogies for adult L2 acquisition and instruction.

The last type of comparison, meanwhile, clearly indicates that both variables are being manipulated. Most of traditional research resulting in illogical comparisons is fallen into this category. Comparisons in this type are difficult to interpret because of the huge and complex cognitive, affective, and physical differences between children and adults. With careful efforts some valuable insights might be yielded from this type of comparison, but it is not highly recommended as the result of its complexity.

C.Fundamental Differences between L1 and L2 Acquisition

Until recently, there has been a controversial concern on SLA issues whether the fundamental principles of acquiring L1 and l2 is similar and whether the language acquisition device which is claimed by mentalists to account for L1 acquisition is also available for L2 acquisition. The Identity Hypothesis also referred to L1=L2 hypothesis has been the major theory underpinning the arguments that the L1 acquisition process is the same as its L2 counterpart. The research has revealed that the arguments under this premise are relevant for the L1 and L2 acquisition process that occurs in the early stage of development such as similarities of the use of formulas and structural and semantic simplification in the silent period of language learning. However, along with the vast growth of SLA research in this issue there has been clear evidence of their differences as well (Ellis, 1994).

The enormous and conflicting results regarding to comparison study of L1 and L2 acquisition have yielded a rich body of knowledge and theories that weakens the Identity Hypothesis propositions. One of the very early findings scrutinizing the differences between L1 and L2 acquisition is based on the work of Dulay and Burt (1974) that focused on the acquisition of grammatical morphemes (as cited in Nunan, 1999). In this research, they investigate the mental process used to learn and use the target language referred to Psycholinguistic Mechanism. Based on the findings, they conclude that the propositions contending the similarities between L1 and L2 acquisition are no longer relevant. Instead, they reveal that there have been fundamental distinctions in terms of: 1) age; 2) cognitive development and 3) language learning experience, which altogether contribute to the differences of language learning process and strategies used in L1 and L2 acquisition (Dulay and Burt, 1974 as cited in Nunan, 1999; Bellingham, 2004). The following table summarizes the findings of the research.

(Table cannot be displayed)

Table 1: Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition based on Dulay and Burt (1974, as
cited in Nunan, 1999)

The contribution of age to L1 and L2 acquisition is still widely debated among linguists, but Ellis (1985 as cited in Nunan 1999) asserts that the manifestation of age in SLA can be examined in three dimensions or aspects of SLA: the route, rate and ultimate attainment. Route of SLA can be defined as the developmental path learners follow when acquiring the L2, while Rate of SLA might refer to the speed at which learners acquire the L2. Meanwhile, Ultimate Attainment is directed to the level of proficiency attained by learners. Within these three scopes, the contribution of age to SLA can be summarized as follow:

1. Starting age does not affect the route of SLA. Although there might be differences in the acquisitional order, these are not the result of age.
2. Starting age affects the rate of learning. When grammar and vocabulary are concerned, adolescent learners do better than either children or adults, when length of exposure is held constant. When pronunciation is concerned, there is no appreciable difference.
3. Both number of years exposure and starting age affect the level of success. The number of years’ exposure contributes greatly to the overall communicative fluency of the learners, but starting age determines the level of accuracy achieved, particularly in pronunciation (Ellis, 1985, p. 106 as cited in Nunan, 1999, p. 41).

The variant influence of age to SLA, represented in the rate of learning, can be explained by considering the Critical Period Hypothesis. Brown (2000, pp. 53-54) defined critical period as “a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire.” According to this belief, he added, “the brain around puberty result in the left and right hemispheres of the brain operating independently and once this change has occurred language acquisition is extremely difficult, if not impossible.” Although this hypothesis is likely possible, however some methodological problems with studies into the critical period that it was carried out not in the field of SLA might call on more comprehensive research to support their hypothesis (Nunan, 1999; Myer, 2006).

The discussion of cognitive development, on the other hand, has been associated with intelligence psychology, Jean Piaget, who argues that the most critical stage for a consideration of L1 and L2 acquisition appears to occur at puberty. At this point, a person becomes capable of abstraction, of formal thinking which transcends concrete experience and direct perception (Brown, 2000). Another theory relevant to the issue of cognitive differences between child and adult language acquisition is the lateralization hypothesis. The hypothesis asserts that as the child matures into adulthood, the left hemisphere which controls the analytical and intellectual functions becomes more dominant than the right hemisphere which controls the emotional functions. At this stage, the language learning can be more enhanced accordingly (Lenneberg,1967, as cited in Myer, 2006 and Brown, 2000).

The second research investigating the differences between L1 and L2 acquisition is done by Bley-Vroman (1988) who delineated and described nine essential features that strongly advocate that “child language development and foreign language learning are in fact fundamentally different. The domain-specific acquisition system does not have the role in addressing the logical problem of foreign language learning that it has in child learning” (p. 42). In this research, he focuses his intention on the possible differences language learning and acquisition between L1 and adults’ foreign learning. He summarizes systematically his findings as outlined in the following table (Vroman, 1988 as cited in Ellis, 1994).

(Table cannot be displayed)

Table 2: Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition based on Bley-Vroman (1988)

Al though it is still difficult get clear boundaries and categorisations among these emerging features, the above comparison between L1 and L2 acquisition has informed us that there has been a specific condition that is not present in the L2 acquisition which usually happens in the later age (adult) and vice versa.

The latest study in the same field was carried out by Lightbown and Spada (1999) who drew their attention to the acquisition of syntax that is the grammatical arrangements of words in a sentence. The research is based upon the Chomsky’s theory which advocates that all humans are born with the innate ability to acquire their first language renowned as Innateness Hyphothesis. They give an analogy that:

“every child will learn to walk as long as adequate nourishment and reasonable freedom of movement are provided. The child does not have to be taught. Most children learn to walk at about the same age, and walking is essentially the same in all normal human beings. For Chomsky, language acquisition is very similar. The environment makes a basic contribution – in this case, the availability of people who speak to the child. The child, or rather, the child’s biological endowment, will do the rest” (Lightbown and Spada, 1999, p. 15).

This ability represented in the Innateness hypothesis actually refers to Language Acquisition Device (LAD) or Universal Grammar (UG) which consists of important innate linguistic properties. One major implication derived from this finding is that under normal conditions everyone is able to acquire native proficiency in their L1. However, this is not applicable to second language acquisition. This suggests that there is a different overall success in L1 and L2 acquisition in which most of L2 learners will never acquire native like proficiency in their L2 learning (Nunan, 1999). This conclusion is in accordance with and supports the proposition offered by Vroman (1988) as outlined in the table 2.

D.Conclusion

A number of studies on SLA have suggested that L1 and L2 acquisition might share its similarities in the process of acquiring the being-learned language. However, it should be acknowledged that several fundamental differences do appear both in theories underpinning language learning and pedagogical practices. The current assumption that L2 acquisition can be treated exactly in the same way as in L1 acquisition process seems to be emphasized overly. Accordingly, many people are unable to see reality that in some respect the process of L1 and L2 acquisition clearly requires different approaches and strategies. Educators particularly language teachers should be conscious that these false beliefs might lead them to inappropriate language teaching and learning practices resulting in ineffective students’ outcomes. The complex process of comparison might also important to consider since numerous studies might be unable to aptly use it in their methodological procedures that invite us to be more critical and selective in adopting any theories and beliefs. Finally, a number of fundamental differences between L1 and L2 acquisition presented in this paper including age and the concept of critical period hypothesis, cognitive development and lateralization, affective contribution and language learning experiences may be valuable to consider to offer a greater opportunity for language learning success particularly in second language learning.

E.References

Bellingham, L. (2004). Is There Language Acquisition After 40? Older Learners Speak Up. In P. Benson and D. Nunan (Eds.), Learners’ Stories: Difference and Diversity in Language Learning (pp. 56-68).

Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (3rd Edition), Chapter 2, First Language Acquisition.

Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (4th Edition). New York: Pearson Education.

Dulay, H., & Burt, M. (1974). Natural Sequences in Child Second Language Acquisition. Language Learning, 24.

Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Chapter 1, Second Language Acquisition Research: An Overview, pp. 9-17.

Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (1999). How Languages are Learned (2nd Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Myer-Scotton, C. (2006). Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism, Chapter 11, Age of Acquisition and Success with a Second Language.

Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

Scrivener, J. (2002). Learning Teaching: A Guidebook for English Language Teachers. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

(For detail figure and tables, you may email me at adinview@yahoo.com)

Learners are Meta-cognitive: Enhancing students’ metacognitive awareness through problem solving

Understanding and being able to apply an English grammar correctly especially in writing is relatively difficult task for English foreign users, particularly students. In this brief paper, the writer will describe a strategy for teaching Present Tense Passive Voice for the first year students of a senior high school. This grammar topic is found to be problematic for students particularly when they have to transfer active sentences into passive ones. The presented teaching strategy is expected to overcome such problems while enhancing students’ metacognitive awareness through five steps of a contemporary model of problem solving.

1. Identify the problem
As an initial stage of identifying the problem, the teacher distributes an authentic text taken from an English newspaper to the students. In this text, he purposively selects an article consisting of various passive sentences in it. The students are, then, invited to understand the information by reading every single sentence while highlighting sentences written in a passive form. After finishing their reading, randomly several volunteers are asked to tell the information provided in the article to the class and write their highlighted passive sentences on the white board. In the next activity, the teacher hands out an authentic sample of final examination questions dealing with the use of passive voices. In pair, the students are invited to observe and brainstorm what the sample questions is about and try to predict what the answer is. As a main activity of this session, the students are invited to transfer several active sentences into passive sentences. As a first step to accomplish the task the students are invited to answer several initial clue questions dealing with information of how they gather the information and their understanding on the given problem..

In the above session, the teacher intentionally invites the students to engage in activities which indirectly lead them to focus on passive sentences while curiously questioning themselves about their understanding of this particular structure. At this point, he deliberately activates his students’ prior knowledge relevant to solve the given problem. Bruning et al., (2004) assert that schemata or prior knowledge enable students to be more selective and less effort in paying attention, encoding the essential information. The initial questions adopted from Schoenfeld (1985) and Corno and Mandinach (1983) are intended to help the students identify and gather the required information for overcoming the given task. At the same time, authentic material and samples of examination are intended to stimulate personal motivation that passive sentences are commonly used in daily text and even will be crucial for completing their final test. This motivation will support them to be more enthusiastic and persistent in solving the given task (Pressley as cited by Bruning et al., 2004).

2. Representing the problem
In assisting students to accomplish the task, the teacher distributes a blank piece of paper and invites the students to write the specific formula of both active and passive sentences. Later, they are encouraged to identify the formula to generate as many rules as possible in order to change active into passive forms. During this period, the teacher ensures and checks around for assistance. After identifying the formula, the students are given a planning question adopted form King (1991). See appendix 1.

The first and second activities are devoted to help learner to think in a more concrete way. This is useful to reduce difficulty since it assists students to focus only on the required formula for a certain sentence. Bruning et al. (2004) suggest that ‘using some forms of external representation can reduce greatly the amount of information that needs to be remembered in order to identify and solve a problem” (p. 166). Moreover, they also point out that simplifying the information by segmenting or categorizing is beneficial to help learners manage their cognitive loads crucial for the success of their learning. In addition, the planning question is another technique to ask student to consider the various components involved in completing the task. A problem can be easier when the solvers are able to control and recognize contributing factors such as goals, time, budget, constraints etc., to solve the problems (Bruning et al., 2004).

3. Selecting an appropriate strategy
In this session, before embarking on sentence transformation they are encourage to review and evaluate the process and information they have already experienced from identifying to representing the problem. Bruning et al., indicate that “the success that one has when implementing a strategy depend, in large part, on how well one identifies and represents the problem and on type of strategy one adopts” (p. 169). Furthermore, Cooney contends that “experts place a high priority on defining and representing the problem before deciding on a solution; novices do not” (as cited in Bruning et al., 2004 p. 170). Since the given task deals with a fixed matter based on language agreement; grammar, the students have been able to generate their own rules to solve the problem. As the result, a rule-based strategy is the suitable and useful method to solve the given task. Bruning et al. (2004) inform that this kind of strategy has a greater effectiveness since it has a greater possibility of success. Moreover, categorizing enables learners to be can eliminate possible errors and enhance evaluation.

4. Implementing the strategy
Prior to engage in generating a solution, the students are invited to answer a regulatory check list adopted from King (1991) (see appendix-1). This checklist is administered to help students think more carefully and systematically when implementing the strategy. King (as cited in Schraw, 1998) reveals that using this regulatory check list assist learner to control their performances and solve the problems more systematically. After completing this check list, the students are invited to categorize the active sentences according to the formula they have previously constructed. In this activity, they identify whether the sentences are positive, negative, interrogative, simple or complex. After each sentence is appropriately categorized, the students transform the active sentences into passive ones by following the specific rules they have previously constructed. In this process, the students clearly use their procedural knowledge to apply what they already know to a new situation or concept, in this case changing active into passive sentences.

5. Evaluating the strategy
In this session, the students are given opportunities to evaluate through a regulatory check list adopted from King (1991) (see appendix-1) and gain feedbacks both from peers and teacher. These activities are intended to help learner to self-assess and measure to what extent their strategy works or does not, and how it can be improved for future similar task. In addition, Bruning et al., (2004) indicate that most of the study on metacognition, reflective practices, and self-regulation conclude that purposeful evaluation is the basic component for every learning improvement.

___________________________________________________________________________

Appendix-1:

A regulatory check list adopted from King (1991)

Planning

1. What is the nature of the task?

2. What is my goal?

3. What kind of information and strategies do I need?

4. How much time and resources will I need?

Monitoring

1. Do I have clear understanding of what I am doing?

2. Does the task make sense?

3. Am I reaching my goal?

4. Do I need to make changes?

Evaluating

1. Have I reached my goal?

2. What works?

3. What didn’t work?

4. Would I do things differently next time?

Appendix-2:

Present Tense-Passive Voice
Active Voice	Passive Voice
(+) S + V(s/es) + O.	(+) O + to be + V3 + by + S.
(-) S + Do/Does + not + V + O.	(-) O + to be + not + V3 + by + S.
(?) Do/Does + S + V + O?	(?) To be + S + V3 + by O?
Conditions/rules to form a passive sentence: 1. The sentence must be a verbal sentence. 2. The sentence has an object. 3. The verb used in the sentence must be a transitive verb. 4. Reverse the object of the active sentence into the subject. 5. Change the V of the active sentence into V3. 6. Change the Do/Does into Is/Are. 7. If the object used in an active form is a singular/uncountable noun, then (is) is used in the passive form. 8. If the object used in an active form is a plural noun, then (are) is used in the passive form. 9. (By) is usually used before the object of the passive form.

References

Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., Norby, M. M., & Ronning, R. R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Fortunato, I. & Deborah, H. (1999). Metacognition and problem solving, The Arithmatic Teacher, 39, 4, 38.

Schraw, G. (1994). Promoting general metacognitive awareness, Instructional Science, 26, 113-125.

Learners are Cognitive

The following is a brief example for teachers of how the steps in the teaching sequence address different stages of information processing.

A. Instructional sequence

Pre-teaching activities
	1	The teacher sets today teaching and learning goals.
	2	The students are invited to think of a story they like the most and consider why they like that story.
	3	In pair, the students share their favourite story.
Main teaching activities
	1	The students are asked to listen and write down several key words dictated by the teacher.
	2	The class volunteers are invited to write the dictated words on the whiteboard for gaining class feedback.
	3	Relied on the given words, in pair, the students are challenged to guess and tell what the story will be about.
	4	The teacher distributes the copies of the full story to the students and invites them compare with their prior guess.
	5	In small groups, the students are asked to examine the given story to find out 1) the general purpose and 2) the specific features of writing organisation.
	6	In turn, each group presents their findings to class.
	7	In powerpoint slides, the teacher gives feedback related to the given tasks.
	8	Individually, the students are asked to answer questions related to the set learning objectives.
Closing
	1	The students play ‘a chained-story’ game.
	2	The teacher informs the students about the next meeting teaching and learning objectives.

B. Teaching sequence and its cognitive considerations

At the opening of instruction, a set of activities are given to activate students’ existing knowledge relevant to the topic going to discuss. Adam reveals that “the prior knowledge directly influences perception, pattern recognition and the assignment of meaning” (as cited in Bruning et al., 2004, p. 22). As an initial clue, explaining the expected teaching and learning outcomes is intended to catch the learners’ attention to focus on the essential information throughout the instruction (Bruning et al., 2004). Moreover, to enrich the schema activation process, the learners also engage in story-telling activities in which they should recall, share with and justify their story preferences. A variety of activities given is to ensure that the learners have sufficient opportunities to recall the related information which is important for next instructional stages. Anderson (1996) informs that to activate learners’ existing knowledge, teachers may be required to provide a variety of pre-teaching activities since different students may need different hints or clues in order to activate their current knowledge.

In the main teaching session, it appears that the teaching activities are sequenced from the simple to the more complex activities such as having group discussions and answering the questions. In general, this teaching episode is devoted to help the learners manage their cognitive load which is crucial for their learning success (Bruning et al., 2004). In working with words and meanings, the learners engage in activities to overcome the language barrier and at the same time prepare them for more complex tasks. In this way, the teacher can reduce the complexity of the materials and eliminate the learners’ cognitive overload (Mayer&Moreno as cited in Bruning et al., 2004).

At the following stage, by using the given words, the learners are challenged to firstly predict what the story will be about and then compare their predictions with the original story. In predicting the story, the learners try to organize and link the given words to construct the most possible story. They are given opportunities to proceduralise their declarative knowledge (words and meanings) which is important to develop their procedural and conditional knowledge valuable for the next stage of learning (Bruning et al., 2004). In addition, when the learners compare their prediction with the original, they will more easily understand the content of the story, since their attention is drawn to focus on it.

As the learners become more familiar with the story, they are asked to answer the designated task. At this stage, the language barrier is not becoming a significant problem, so that, by integrating what they already know and the given task the learners can develop their procedural knowledge more easily. The teacher also believes that, at this point, the learners have been able to manage their attention and resources appropriately since they have gained sufficient information and knowledge related the story in the previous stages (Bruning et al., 2004). In addition, the learners are also split into several groups in order to help them solve the given problems. By working in a group, the learners have more chances to gain possible responses to the tasks and enrich their existing knowledge that represents a supporting instructional environment (Bruning et al., 2004). Likewise, the presentation session promote learners to have more comprehensive understanding and become more committed on the given task.

At the feedback and evaluation stage, the teacher directs the learners to engage in their essential cognitive processing. They are promoted to generate inferences, link their understanding with the teachers’ feedback and gain specific answers for the assigned task. In addition, through powerpoint slides the teacher also tries to integrate audio-visual aid in his teaching practice valuable to enhance students’ comprehension. Baddely (2000) reveals that new information will be more easily comprehended when it is distributed in the working memory properly both in the articulatory loop through teacher’s verbal explanation and in the visual-spatial sketch pad through images.

In the closing session, the teacher gives a more entertaining activity which directs the students to practice composing a collaborative story. In so doing, the teacher attempts to build the students’ cognitive automaticity process valuable for completing similar task in the following teaching session (Bruning et al., 2004). In the last activity, the teacher provides overview of the essential information in order to assist the students to prepare and activate their current knowledge for the next instruction.

References

Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition, American Psychologist, 51, 355-365.

Anderson, J. R. (2005). Cognitive psychology and its implications (6th ed.). New York: Worth.

Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trend in Cognitive Science, 4, 417-423

Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., Norby, M. M., & Ronning, R. R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

BRIEFING PAPER: Teacher Quality Upgrading as the Key Success of Improving Education Quality

To: The Head Department of National Education

From: Al-Izzah Islamic School

Subject: Teacher Quality Upgrading as the Key Success of Improving Education Quality including Education Internationalisation in the Country

Purpose
The main objective of this briefing paper is to alert the Head of Department of National Education to the issues of national education quality involving internationalisation of secondary and higher education in Indonesia and to recommend the Head of Department of National Education developing an action plan to improve the current educational practices and policies.

Background
Globalisation, represented in the changes of economic life, society and information technology, has radically shifted the nature of educational structure and system within the country. It changes the basic nature of learning process and promotes commoditisation of education that shapes learning different from its traditional form (Kenway as cited by Green, 2006). In the past few years, national education in the country has become more open and progressive. The rapid growth of information technology and intensity of international education meetings and conferences especially among neighbouring countries has facilitated the national education department to compare, to develop and even to adopt global policies indicated by internationalisation of secondary and higher education in the country.

This educational transformation, from local to global education, has unavoidably called on educators to revisit and reconceptualize not only their education goals and orientation but also their pedagogical philosophy and strategies. Learning is no longer constrained by time and space. The teachers’ knowledge and expertise in their subjects and in operating millennium technologies is no longer optional. It is the responsibility of the government as the policy makers as well as educators/teachers as “the engineers” to ensure that the adopted educational concepts and curricula can be properly translated and put into classrooms. Therefore, preparing competent and qualified teachers is deemed critical for successful practices of globalised education without which the national education quality will not improve.

Issues
The people’s scepticism to the impacts of internationalisation of education on the improvement of national education quality does not mean that the growth of internationalisation will stop to evolve. Today it may be wise and reasonable to see globalised education as an inevitable consequence of social changes and of nature of social development including globalisation. We have to stat thinking of how to best prepare students to cope with the unprecedented challenges rather than being emotionally resistant and sceptic which hinders us to see reality of the future.

As a response to globalisation, in 2002 the Indonesian government has initiated a legal framework for reforming the national education resulting in the increase of national budget spending on education reaching 20% of total national expenditure. In the following year (2003), the government introduced new regulation on national education system promoting access and quality of education for all (nine year school program), decentralisation of education management and education standardisation including internationalisation of national education. In 2005, the law on teachers and lectures was proposed with main agenda improving teacher and lecturer’s teaching quality including recognition of teacher as profession, teacher qualification, certification, and incentive scheme.

The above educational reform agenda in particular internationalisation of education seemingly promise improvement to the quality of national education. However, today after eight years of practice, we may be witnessing that the quality of national education does not improve as predicted.

Discussion
Since firstly introduced in 2003, internationalisation of secondary and higher education in the country is expected to provide opportunity for improving the national education quality as well as gaining prestige among countries under OECD alliance. However, the emergence of various issues following the application of internationalisation has indicated that the existing educational policies are apparently not well interpreted and might not accommodate the current condition especially the available human resources or teachers. The government might assume that by raising the educational budget and integrating national with international curricula will be adequate to improve the quality of national education. However, the current educational practices exhibits that there has been another factor which is also critical in supporting the policies and practices that is qualified teachers without which the improvement of national education will be difficult to achieve.

A number of studies have informed that teacher is the most significant resource in school (Department of Education & Training Melbourne, 2005; OECD, 2009; Wei, et al., 2010). However, a study carried out by Alam (2008) reveals that the numbers of teachers in the country with sound knowledge and skills of pedagogy is very limited. Furthermore, World Bank (Undated) and Firman (Undated) report that as the result of implementing law on teachers and lectures (from 2004), a huge number of existing teachers in the country become underqualified (90% primary school, 55% junior high school and 25% senior high school). Ironically, a number of studies also report that there are mismatch (out of field) teachers distributed in different provinces. High population of existing teachers is also likely to create another problem leading to unfair competition and poor professional development. High pressures and demands in international standard education such as new learning standard and assessment, new learning skills, updated curriculum content and effective use of information technology require teachers to be more professional and proficient in their teaching styles and strategies (Hargreaves, 2006). The teachers are expected to run their teaching by considering the international contexts and standards even though they are teaching local students.

In their practices, teachers who are eligible to teaching international standard school is expected to 1) understand the international context of education; 2) value students’ multilingual abilities; 3) employ strategies that facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse cultural groups; 4) be familiar with international student characteristics, including stage theories of development, age-level characteristics and student variability in learning; 5) be sensitive to the difficulties transition can cause and skilled in supporting students and parents; 6) actively seek to enrich both what and how they teach with multiple international perspectives and 7) be reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his or her choices and actions (Snowball, 2007, pp. 247-254).

In addition to important role of teacher in the school, research conducted in OECD countries points out that raising teacher quality is most likely to lead to substantial gains in school performances (Timperley, et al., 2007; OECD, 2009; Wei, et al., 2010). However, in the country the professional development for teachers, especially those teaching international standard school, is still ineffectively carried out (Supriatna, Undated). The current professional development scheme initiated by the government including teacher certification, professional and additional allowance for certified teachers and school-based teacher professional development, seem to be effective in the paper but not in practices. A huge number of abuses and issues in the implementation lead to ineffective results of professional development.

Currently, teachers eagerly seeking certification are more attracted to the professional allowance gained after holding the certificate rather than improving their pedagogical performances (Indonesia.go.id, 2008, 2009). Many teachers attend and participate in conferences, courses and training programs driven by motive collecting as many credentials as possible instead of developing their teaching related skills and knowledge. A number of incidents also show that in order to be successful in certification some teachers provide unreal professional experience evidences in their resumes or curriculum vitae. Moreover, poor certification procedures, inconsistent and unclear standardisation, and pressure from teacher association to soften the standard of certification process might also have great contribution to the failure of certification program.

Dealing with school-based professional development, the government should recognize that only a limited number of schools provide both pre and in-service training program for their teachers. Many schools especially the administrators are still unaware of the important of effective and on going professional development for improving their student learning outcomes (Supriatna, Undated). Accordingly, professional development is deemed worthless since it deteriorates teacher’s teaching time and spends school budget. In addition, many schools seem to have misconception of the school-based professional development. They should fully understand that the training programs participated by their teachers should be relevant with the existing needs of the teachers. However, at present time many schools and administrators design or delegate their teachers to participate in professional development program which is not factual and less meaningful for their individual development as teachers.

Recommendations
To develop the national education quality as well as improving effectiveness of the current educational policies and practices, I suggest that:

1. That the Head of National Education Department establishes the consistent and reliable national teacher competency standards;


2. That the Head of National Education Department provides clear routes and standard to enter teaching profession;


3. That the Head of National Education Department improves pre-service teacher education programs to meet the national teacher competency standards;


4. That the Head of National Education Department upgrade under-qualified teachers through on going professional development programs and continuing education;


5. That the Head of National Education Department conducts reliable and effective teacher certification scheme;


6. That the Head of National Education Department develops effective school-based teacher professional development;


7. That the Head of National Education Department develops robust and reliable supervision team to monitor and evaluates the effectiveness of the above programs.

References

Alam, S. (2008). Quo Vadis Sekolah Berstandar International? Retrieved on July 12, 2010, from http://www.averroes.or.id/opinion/quo-vadis-sekolah-berstandar-internasional.html.

Department of Education & Training Melbourne. (2005). Professional learning in effective schools. Published by Leadership and Teacher Development Branch, Retrieved on October 22, 2010 from http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/edulibrary/public/teachlearn/teacher/ProfLearningInEffectiveSchools.pdf.

Firman, H. (Undated). Teachers quality improvement in the context of current education reform in Indonesia. Retrieved on October 25, 2010 from http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/forum/seminar78ppt.pdf

Green, A. (2006). Education, globalisation, and the nation states in (Ed) Lauder et al, Education, Globalisation and Social Change, Oxford Press, Oxford. pp 192-197.

Hargreaves, A. (2006). Four ages of professionalism and professional learning in (Ed) Lauder et al, Education, Globalisation and Social Change, Oxford Press, Oxford. pp 673-691.

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OECD. (2009). Creating effective teaching and learning environments: First result from Teaching And Learning International Survey (TALIS). OECD.

Snowball, L. (2007). Becoming more internationally-minded: International teacher certification and professional development in The SAGE Handbook of Research in International Education. SAGE Publications pp. 247-255.

Supriatna, A. (Undated). Issues of education for sustainable development (esd) in teacher education curriculum in Indonesia: Progress and challenges. Faculty of Mathematics and Science Education. Indonesia University of Education (UPI).

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